Wonders Of The Human Body | by Auguste Le Pileur

While sufficiently minute in anatomical and physiological details to satisfy those who desire to go deeper into such studies than many may deem necessary, this work is nevertheless written so that it may form part of the domestic library

Title	Wonders Of The Human Body
Author	Auguste Le Pileur
Publisher	Charles Scribner And Co.
Year	1870
Copyright	1870, Charles Scribner And Co.
Amazon	Wonders of the Human Body

The Human Body

Publishers' Preface: There is an increasing tendency in the present day to make common property of special knowledge. Even such information as formerly belonged to certain professions alone is, at least in its rudiments, ...

Chapter I. Introduction: Opinions of the ancients concerning the human body. Summary of general anatomy. Substance of the body or organized matter. Anatomical elements. Nutrition. Fluids. Tissues. It has been said with tru...

The Secreted Fluids Or Secretions: The Secreted Fluids Or Secretions are produced by special apparatus from the materials furnished by the constituent fluids. They differ from these last in being only a medium for the elements which t...

Osseous Or Bony Tissue: Osseous Or Bony Tissue, which is composed principally of an anatomical element called osteoplasm. It is compact in some parts of the bones, and spongy in others. This tissue is traversed by infinitely...

Muscular Tissue: This constitutes the muscles, or the flesh, properly speaking. It is composed of elements called muscular fibres, which are of two sorts, the smooth, formed of fibre-cells, and the striped, formed of ...

Nervous Tissue: Nervous Tissue is essentially formed of tubes, which are large and small. They have homogeneous, thin, transparent walls, and contain a viscous, fatty fluid, which is the medullary substance or the w...

The Ganglionic Corpuscles: The Ganglionic Corpuscles , so called because they are found in the substance of the ganglia, receive the sensitive tubes as they come from the brain or spinal marrow. These tubes unite with the walls...

Chapter II. Form Of The Body Its Beauty: Form of the body its beauty. The masterpieces which it has inspired. Description of the skin. its functions. Nature, in modelling animals, has marvellously adapted their forms to the functions and ...

Form Of The Body Its Beauty. Continued: The skin slides over the organs within certain variable limits, according as the cellular tissue which it carries with it is more or less relaxed, and as it is itself thick or thin. Thus it is movable...

Chapter III. Structure Of The Body: Bones The bones are the framework of the human body. They are formed of a hard and extremely resistant tissue, and they surround more or less completely with solid walls the cavities containing del...

Cartilage: To the bony system belong the cartilages, which are formed of what might be termed tissue in a state of transition between fibrous and bony substance. This tissue, homogeneous in true cartilage, mingl...

Joints: The bones are attached to each other, either by their extremities or their sides, in such a manner as to permit freedom of motion to a greater or less extent between the different parts of the skeleto...

Muscles: United by the joints, the bones of the skeleton, taken as a whole, approach the form of the body. But in order to put these bones in motion, and to bring these joints into play, we must call to our ai...

Tendons, Aponeuroses: In most of the muscles we can distinguish a fleshy portion, which is essentially the muscle, and a fibrous portion, which is called either tendon or aponeurosis according to its form. The tendons are ...

Chapter IV. Spinal Column: The spinal column is the foundation to which all the other parts of the skeleton are adapted. It is composed of seven cervical vertebræ, twelve dorsal and five lumbar vertebræ, and is terminated by th...

Thorax: The ribs are attached by the transverse processes to the dorsal vertebræ, and in front by cartilages to the sternum or breast-bone. They are twelve in number on each side. The interstices of this bony...

Upper Limb: Near the apex of the cone formed by the chest the upper or- thoracic limbs are attached. They are composed of four parts,—the shoulder, arm, fore-arm, and hand. The two bones of the shoulder are the s...

The Wrist Joint: The Wrist-Joint , which unites the hand to the fore-arm, resembles in its mechanism that of the shoulder. Eight bones of different and very complicated forms constitute the wrist or carpus. Three of t...

The Hand: The Hand is essentially the organ of touch and of prehension. These functions devolve principally upon its anterior or palmar face. The nervous papillæ with which it is provided abound specially at t...

Lower Or Abdominal Limb: It is composed, like the upper limb, of four parts—the hip, thigh, leg, and foot The two bones of the hip, or pelvic bones, articulate together and with the sacrum; this last, placed between the two l...

Chapter V. Motion: Motion. Effort. Locomotion; Standing, Walking, Running, Jumping, Swimming. Motion Physiologists remark several varieties of motion which may be grouped in two—voluntary and involuntary movements...

Effort For Motion: When one or several groups of muscles contract themselves strongly in order to perform a function requiring force, or to overcome an obstacle, to draw or push away a body, the name effort has been giv...

Locomotion: Man moves over the surface of the ground by three principal methods of progression—walking, running, and leaping; but the point of departure is always the vertical position. In this attitude, which ch...

Running: Running differs from walking principally in the fact that at a given moment the body leaves the ground, and passes through space in the same manner as a projectile. The body is inclined more forward, ...

Trotting: Trotting is running when the impulsion forward is not so strong, and the movements are less rapid, which renders it more applicable to uneven ground, where it is necessary to choose the place where th...

Leaping: Leaping is, properly speaking, nothing but a step of running taken singly. A man can jump with his feet joined, that is to say, the two feet quit the ground at the same instant, and the body is thrown...

Swimming: Man can sustain himself upon the water, and traverse it for a considerable space by swimming; but this is not an instinctive method of locomotion for him—he must learn to swim, while walking and the o...

Chapter VI. The Head. The Skull: The head. The skull, bones of the skull, sutures, arch of the skull, base of the skull.—Measurement of the skull; facial angle, angle of Daubenton; comparison of the superficies of the skull and of th...

The Head. The Skull. Continued: This last method of measurement, even though it gives an idea of the relative intelligence within narrow limits only, is at least founded upon certain facts, and it expresses the law of the proportion...

Chapter VII. Digestion: Waste of the organism repaired by alimentation,—Hunger.— Thirst.—Organs of digestion ; abdominal cavity, peritoneum.—Digestive apparatus.—Mouth, lips, cheeks, teeth, palate, soft palate, tongue.— Phar...

Abdominal Cavity: This cavity is the largest in the body; it is situated below the chest, from which it is separated by the diaphragm, and extends to the lower extremity of the trunk. It is divided into several parts o...

Palate: The palatine arch is formed, as we have already seen, by the upper jaw-bones and the palatine bones. It is circumscribed in front and on the sides by the upper teeth. It is covered with a thick mucous...

The Stomach: The form of the stomach has been compared to that of a bagpipe. It is a large pouch, an expansion of the digestive tube, placed transversely across the upper portion of the abdomen. Its left extremity...

The Peritoneum (Peri, Around; Teinein, To Stretch): The Peritoneum (Peri, Around; Teinein, To Stretch) envelops the intestinal canal, attaches it to the vertebral column by a double membranous fold, called the mesentery, and partially covers it by a fl...

The Mucous Membrane: This membrane is to the cavities which it lines, what the skin is to the surface of the body. It is an internal skin, which is a continuation of the external Like the skin, it is an organ of absorptio...

The Liver: The Liver is an organ of a glandular nature, and, like all the glands, is designed to secrete a peculiar fluid. It separates from the blood the elements which constitute bile. Situated in the right hy...

The Kidneys: The Kidneys are two in number, and are placed on the right and left of the lumbar vertebræ in the lowest part of the hypochonders. They are glands of a peculiar and very complicated structure. They se...

Digestion In The Stomach: From the mouth the alimentary mass descends through the pharynx and œsophagus to the stomach, where it mingles with the gastric juice, one of the most powerful agents of digestion. The gastric juice i...

Intestinal Digestion: In proportion as the chyme reaches the duodenum through the pyloric orifice, the bile and the pancreatic juice mingle with it, as the gastric juice does in the stomach. They both aid in liquefying the...

Absorption: The moment chyle is formed digestion proper may be considered as accomplished, though on this function also depends the absorption of the chyle, which must still be perfected in its course through the...

The Mucous Membranes: The Mucous Membranes absorb more rapidly than the skin, and this tissue is more or less permeable according to its thickness, its density, as the epidermis which covers it is thick or thin. Absorption...

Chapter VIII. Respiration: Respiration. Thoracic cavity; pleura.—Organs of respiration: lungs, trachea, bronchia.—Respiration; influence of respiration on the blood, Lavoisier's theory, theory of catalytic phenomena; mechanism ...

Pleura: The cavity of the chest is lined with a serous membrane, called the pleura, which forms in each half of this cavity a sac without an opening. There are therefore two pleurae, a right and a left Procee...

Organs Of Respiration. Lungs: As their name indicates (pneumon, from pneo, I breathe), the lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They are two in number, though they receive the air by one canal and the blood by a single v...

Respiration: Respiration is a function by which the oxygen of the air is introduced into the blood, and by which part of the useless and hurtful materials are expelled, in a gaseous form, from the organism. It is ...

Mechanism Of Respiration: We have seen that respiration is divided into two movements—inspiration and expiration. In inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and sinks down, pushing the abdominal organs downward. The ribs rise by ...

Respiratory Sounds: In a normal condition, and when awake, respiration takes place without noise when the movement is moderate; but when inspiration and expiration are strong and deep, it is accompanied by a noise caused...

Frequency Of Respiration: In an adult in a condition of repose, respiration takes place about eighteen times a minute, in the infant it is more frequent As is well known, it becomes very active under the influence of bodily ex...

Capacity Of The Lungs: It is estimated that the lungs of a man from thirty-five to forty years old will contain about 225 cubic inches of air; it is less before that age, and rails to a little less than 200 cubic inches at ...

Influence Of The Pressure Of The Atmosphere On Respiration. Mountain-Sickness: It is well known that the density of the air diminishes with the atmospheric pressure, that is, in the lower regions of the air, on the sea-coast for example, the air is denser than in elevated region...

Chapter IX. Circulation: Circulation. Organs of the circulation; heart, pericardium; arteries, capillaries, principal arteries; veins, principal vans; portal system; lymphatic vessels and ganglia.—Mechanism of the circulation...

Organs Of The Circulation: The heart is a hollow muscular organ, nearly in the form of a cone, of which the base is equal to the height, and about the size of the fist in the adult It is situated towards the middle of the chest...

Arteries: The vessels which carry the blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, and from the left ventricle to the whole system, are called arteries. The first-named, the ramifications of the pulmonary arter...

Principal Arteries: The aorta, which is the main trunk of the arterial system which carries the red blood, is the largest artery in the system. It commences at the upper portion of the left ventricle, not far from the ve...

Veins: The veins carry the blood from the extremities to the heart They are divided like the arteries into two classes, according as, filled with red blood, they run from the capillaries of the lungs to the ...

Movements And Sounds Of The Heart: The heart, the principal agent of the circulation, is the source of movements which are not under the control of the will, but which are constantly influenced by moral impressions and by sensations. T...

Arterial Circulation: The left ventricle, in contracting, pushes the red blood which it contains in the direction of the auriculo-ventricular orifice and toward the orifice of the aorta,—but the mitral valve is so placed t...

Venous Circulation: After passing through the capillary vessels, the blood passes into the venous radicles. At its entrance into the aorta and during its course through the arterial system, it was of a brilliant red colo...

Pulmonary Circulation: The right ventricle contracts, and the flood of venous blood closes the tricuspid valve, and passes into the pulmonary artery. This artery and all its ramifications contain black or venous blood, whil...

Chapter X. Nervous System: Nervous system. Cerebrospinal nervous centre. — Cerebrum. — Cerebellum.—Isthmus of the encephalon.—Medulla oblongata.—Spinal cord. —Membranes; dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater.—Nerves; cranial nerves,...

Human Brain: This is the term commonly applied to all the parts of the encephalon, which are the brain proper, or cerebrum, the cerebellum, or little brain; the isthmus of the encephalon, or the attachment which j...

Isthmus Of The Encephalon: This is the term applied to that portion of the encephalic mass which unites the cerebrum, cerebellum, and the spinal bulb. It is the point of union of the three great divisions of the nervous centre....

Spinal Cord: This name is applied to the spinal portion of the nervous centre. It is a nervous stem, white, cylindrical, and symmetrical, and lies in, but does not completely fill, the vertebral canal; it is held ...

Meninges Or Membranes: The three membranes, placed one above the other, which line the cranium and the vertebral canal, which envelop the encephalon and the spinal cord, and extend to all their inequalities, are designated ...

Arachnoid: This membrane has been compared to a spider's web from its extreme tenuity, and from this it derives its name. It is a serous membrane, and lines the dura mater throughout its whole extent. Like the o...

Pia Mater: This is the name given to the membrane which immediately surrounds the nervous centre. It is a vascular net-work of extreme delicacy and fineness of texture, and may be considered as the nutritive mem...

Nerves: This is the name given to white or grayish threads which are attached by one extremity to the cerebro-spinal nervous centre, and at the other are distributed to the organs. The nerves are composed of ...

The Great Sympathetic: The nervous apparatus designated by this name consists of a double cord placed on either side of the spinal column, the whole length of the neck, and in the interior of the thoracic and abdominal cavi...

Functions Of The Nervous System: The nervous system is the seat of intelligence, of sensation, and of motion; it is the centre of action for the organism, and it presides over all the phenomena which together constitute life. Its spi...

Functions Of The Sensitive And Motor Spinal Nerves: Sensation may be destroyed in a portion of the body while it still possesses the power of motion, and conversely a limb may lose the power of motion and still remain sensitive to external impressions....

Functions Of The Cranial Nerves: Like those which spring from the spinal cord, the nerves of the brain are divisible into motor and sensory nerves. Among these last some are endowed with a special sensibility, as the olfactory, the o...

Functions Of The Encephalon. Medulla Oblongata: The medulla is the central source and regulator of the respiratory movements. It is in a limited portion of this enlargement of the cord, near the origin of the eighth pair of nerves, that, as Flouren...

Cerebrum: Observation has enabled physiologists to distinguish in the spinal cord and spinal nerves, and even in the cranial nerves, the sensitive and motor portions; and we must admit from the results of exper...

The Cerebellum: Among the various functions which physiologists have attributed to the cerebellum, one only has been generally admitted in latter times; that is the co-ordination of movement The repeated experiments ...

Functions Of The Great Sympathetic: The nervous apparatus designated by this name is formed, as we know, by the sensitive and motor filaments coming from the cranial nerves, or from the roots of the spinal nerves. That is, its ramificat...

Nervous Force: The almost instantaneous transmission of sensation and the motor impulse, by the different parts of the nervous system, is one of the mysteries of the organism. This class of phenomena has been compar...

The Memory: The Greeks made Mnemosyne the mother of the Muses, and for us, under a less poetical form, memory is the indispensable bond of union of the intellectual faculties. The senses reveal to us the exter...

Chapter XI. Sense Of Sight: Sense of sight.—Organ of vision.—Globe of the eye; sclerotic; cornea; choroid; ciliary ring; ciliary body; ciliary process; iris; pupil; pigment; retina; vitreous body; hyaloid membrane; crystalline; ...

Choroid: On the internal surface of the sclerotic is a vascular membrane called the choroid, which lines it closely from the bottom of the eye to the circumference of the cornea, and is attached to it by a ver...

Iris: In the space between the ciliary circle and the ciliary process the larger circumference of the iris is fixed. This is a muscular membrane, according to some writers, and vascular according to others,...

Retina: The internal surface of the choroid, or rather the pigmentary layer which covers it, is lined by the retina, a nervous membrane, upon which the objects are depicted that we see. It appears to be forme...

Vitreous Body: The cavity of the globe of the eye in its three posterior quarters is occupied by a substance completely translucent, the vitreous humor. According to most anatomists, it is contained in an envelope c...

Muscles Of The Eye. Conjunctiva: The globe of the eye is situated in the anterior portion of the orbit, beyond which it extends, and its axis, which is on the plane of that of the orbit, is directed inwards towards the centre of the ...

Vision: Among the phenomena, all of which constitute the sight, some belong to the domain of physics, and may be submitted to investigation, many may even be demonstrated by experiment; while others, on the c...

Punctum Caecum Or Blind Point: Mariotte was the first to recognize that all parts of the retina were not equally sensitive. According to most authors, a limited portion of this membrane, corresponding to the papilla of the optic ne...

Reversed Images: The eye may be compared to an optical instrument known as the camera obscura. It is well known that the image of objects appears reversed on the screen of the camera; in the same manner the luminous r...

Functions Of The Iris: In order that vision may be distinct, it is necessary that the rays should enter the eye in the direction of what is termed the visual axis, and the various movements of the organ tend unceasingly to ...

Visual Impressions, Separate Or Mixed: If we look at a print placed at a certain distance, the details of the engraver's work disappears, the dots and the shading are confounded with the white lines which separate them, and the eye perceiv...

Accommodation Of The Eye To Distances: When we make use of the camera obscura, in order that the image may be distinct the screen must be placed in the focus of the instrument, that is at the point where all the rays refracted by the objec...

Myopia, Presbyopia: The range of sight at which we read or write is, in a normal condition, about 12 to 14. inches; this point in myopia is much nearer, and in presbyopia much farther off; but for the latter, distinct vi...

Achromatism: In ordinary vision objects appear to us in their natural colours distinctly defined, and not surrounded with the iris-like fringe which results from the decomposition of light. It would seem therefore...

Stereoscope: From what has been already stated it would seem that in order to give but a single impression, the images perceived by both eyes should be exactly alike. But experiment demonstrates that two images di...

Alternation In The Action Of The Eyes: When we look at two circles in the stereoscope, alike in size but of different colours, or if they are traced on white paper, and contain two different letters, we distinguish alternately one image an...

Persistence Of Retinal Impressions: The impressions made by the luminous rays remain for a certain time, and are then gradually effaced; it is plain then, that if the action is reproduced at shorter intervals than the duration of the im...

Accidental Images: We may compare to a certain extent the action of light on the retina to that of pressure on an elastic surface. When the rays of any colour strike the retina, it resists the impulse of the luminous wa...

Irradiation, Accidental Fringes Of Light: When one portion of the retina is excited by the luminous rays, the vibration is extended to the neighbouring portions, and more strongly in proportion as the light is white; the result of this is, th...

Apparent Motion Of Objects: Among the most common optical illusions we may cite those which consist of the apparent motion of external objects. When on a boat, for example, or in a carriage which is in motion, we seem to be at r...

Movements Of The Eye: The ocular globe is put in motion in the orbit by six muscles, grouped two by two, which raise or lower the eye, turn it inward or outward, or on its anteroposterior axis. In these movements the centr...

Extent And Delicacy Of Vision: As regards the distance at which man can distinguish objects, he is less gifted than many other animals; but in every other respect his visual powers are at least equal to that of inferior beings. We ...

Chapter XII. Sense Of Hearing: Sense of hearing.—Organ of hearing.—External ear; pavilion of tie ear, auditory canal.—Middle ear; tympanum, drum, or membrane tympani, fenestra ovalis, fenestra rotunda, Eustachian tube, the small bo...

External Ear: This is the least complicated portion of the organ; it is composed of the pavilion, or projecting party and the auditory canal. The pavilion of the ear is similar, as the name implies, to the open ...

The Middle Ear: The membrana tympani (membrane of the drum), of which the name indicates the function, is a membranous partition stretched obliquely across the bottom of the auditory canal, which it separates from th...

The Ossicles Or Small Bones Of The Ear: These are four in number; they are articulated together, and form a bony chain which runs from the membrana tympani to the fenestra ovalis, following a broken line. They have been named the hammer (ma...

Labyrinth Or Internal Ear: The internal ear is that portion of the organ of hearing which perceives the impression of sound, and transmits it directly to the brain. It is hollowed out in the petrous bone, and is divided natural...

Cochlea (Or Snail-Shell): This is the name given to a conoid cavity which is separated from the semicircular canals by the vestibule, with which it communicates, and terminates at the fenestra rotunda. The cavity of the cochle...

Membranous Labyrinth: The bony walls of the vestibule and of the semicircular canals inclose and protect a membranous apparatus of the same form, which is separated from them by a space filled with a limpid fluid called pe...

Auditory Nerve: The auditory or acoustic nerve specially belongs to the organ of hearing, and is remarkable for the softness of its texture; it enters the ear by the internal auditory canal, and divides into two bran...

Noises And Sounds: Physicists divide sounds into two classes—musical sound and noise. They both have the same origin, the vibrations of a body transmitted to the air. The short duration of a noise, and the lack of isoch...

Mechanism Of Hearing: The sonorous waves penetrate directly into the auditory canal, or after they have encountered the outer portion of the ear, the sinuosities of which they follow, and the ear itself vibrates to the sho...

Mechanism Of Hearing. Continued: The functions of the three divisions of the labyrinth have been differently stated by different physiologists. According to Duges, the vestibule concentrates the sound, measures the intensity, and con...

Acuteness And Delicacy Of Hearing: It has been said that hearing is the most perfect of the senses in man. Considered as a musical instrument the ear is in fact a most admirable organ, and which man alone possesses; but here, as in the...

Intensity, Distance, And Direction Of Sounds: As we have seen, authors do not agree upon the functions of the different parts of the auditory apparatus in the perception of the intensity, the distance, and the direction of sound. The perception o...

Parallel Between The Ear And The Eye: The eye and the ear present many analogies, both in regard to their functions and their anatomy. The pavilion of the ear has been compared to the eyelids, the auditory canal to the anterior chamber of...

Chapter XIII. Sense Of Smell: Sense of smell. Olfactory organs.—Nose; nasal fossa, turbinated bones, pituitary membrane.—Olfactory nerve.—Odoriferous principles; their development, their action on the nervous system.—Smell,—its se...

Nasal Fossa: This is the name applied to two irregular cavities which are continuous with the nasal cavities; they rest against each other on the median line, and are bounded below by the palatine arch, and above ...

Odours: The philosopher calculates the velocity and intensity of light, he can analyze it, he knows from what substance a given colour emanates, and if this substance exists in the star, the rays of which he ...

Smell: The air which enters the organ of smell deposits on the surface of the pituitary membrane the odoriferous principles with which it is charged, it becomes impregnated with them, and it is in its tissue...

Duration Of Olfactory Impressions: When we have inspired a strong and penetrating odour, the sensation is prolonged for a certain time, sometimes for several hours. It is probable that in this case the impression is not single, but is ...

Chapter XIV. Sense Of Taste: Sense of taste.—Organ of taste.—Special nerves of the organ.—Flavours. —Taste. Organ Of Taste In describing the mouth as a part of the digestive apparatus, the functions of its several parts wer...

Flavours, Taste: The cause and intimate nature of tastes are no better understood than those of odours. It is by volatilization that the intangible particles of the odoriferous principles reach us; it is by a solution...

Flavours, Taste. Continued: The papillæ of the tongue, it is generally considered, are endowed with gustatory sensibility, and this sensibility is principally attributed to the fungiform papillæ. According to M. Longet they are ...

Chapter XV. Sense Of Touch: Sense of touch —Difference between touch and feeling.— Tactile sensibility and general sensibility.—Organ of touch. Sensation of contact; difference in the sensibility of different regions of the body...

Touch And Feeling: Tactile sensations, like all others, are more or less complete according as the attention is, or is not, directed to them. The contact of a foreign body with any sensitive portion of the organism is r...

Sensation Of Temperature: We recognize by contact with a body whether its temperature is the same, or whether it is higher or lower than the point of skin which touches it; in other words, touch gives us an idea of the relativ...

Chapter XVI. Voice And Speech: Voice and speech.—Organ of voice; larynx, cavity of the larynx, glottis, vocal cords; the larynx at different ages and in different sexes.— Physiology of the larynx; mechanism of the voice; opinions a...

The Larynx: The organ of the voice is a sort of a cartilaginous tube composed of movable pieces articulated together, perfectly symmetrical, wider and triangular at its upper portion, which opens into the pharynx...

Physiology Of The Larynx, Mechanism Of The Voice: Like most physiological questions, that of the emission of the voice is differently explained by writers on that subject. In order to explain its functions, the larynx has been compared to different m...

Formation Of Sounds In Whistling: The study of the formation of sounds in the glottis includes that faculty which man possesses of producing the sounds of whistling. This is certainly a much less important and less elevated function; ...

Voice: Voice is a sound produced in the throat by the passage of the air through the glottis, as it is expelled from the lungs. It is grave and strong in man, soft and higher in woman; it varies according to...

Mechanism Of Articulate Sounds: Writers are not in accord in explaining the pronunciation of letters, that is, the mechanism of articulate sounds; but, whether grammarians or physiologists, they all class the letters according to th...

Singing: We generally recognize two series of sounds in the voice in singing, one comprising the grave and semi-acute notes, and the other the high notes; this is called the register of the voice, one is the c...

Timbres (The Distinctive Quality Of Voices): Besides that quality which is peculiar to each individual, the voice may have several others, some of which, as purity, are due to the perfection of the entire vocal apparatus, and others, as the hoar...

Diapason Of Voices: Male voices are divided into bass, baritone, or singing bass, and tenor. The voices of women are the contralto, which corresponds to the baritone, mezzo-soprano, and soprano. The extreme limits of the...

Chapter XVII. Physiognomy: Physiognomy; study of it in works of art.—Movements of expression, their seat.—Colouring of the skin; paleness, redness.—Expression of the muscles; effort, muscles of the face.—Physiognomy of the sens...

Movements Of Expression: Gratiolet, in his treatise on physiognomy, groups under this term all the modifications of form, of colour, etc, which manifest themselves on the surface of the body, under the influence of the most w...

Colour Of The Integuments: The skin, particularly on the face, takes the greatest variety of tints, from a violet red to a livid pallor, under the influence of physical or moral causes, which quicken or retard the circulation o...

Expression Of The Muscles: The action of the muscles and the movements resulting from it, have, on the contrary, a special character, whether taken as a whole or individually, in certain muscles of the face. In making an effort...

Physiognomy Of The Senses: The more the mind predominates over matter, and separates itself from it, the more elevated will be the expression of the physiognomy. Faith and prayer transport man into an order of ideas purely inte...